Hydrogen Bonding - Introduction and Occurrence
This section mainly introduces Hydrogen bond interaction, how to visualize a hydrogen bond, how it occurs, and a few examples of molecules that show Hydrogen bonding.
Organic Chemistry
Markovnikov’s Rule
Russian chemist Vladimir Markovnikov proposed Markovnikov’s rule in 1869 to predict the regiochemistry of addition reactions between unsymmetrical alkenes/ alkynes and hydrogen halides to form alkyl halides.
According to the rule, ‘An alkyl halide is formed in a reaction between an unsymmetrical alkene or alkyne and hydrogen halide (HX) when the negative part of the reagent (X-) attaches to the alkene carbon that has fewer number of hydrogen atoms across the double bond.’
Neutron
A Neutron is an uncharged, neutral subatomic particle found in an atom's nucleus, denoted as n or n0.
Difference Between sp3, sp2, and sp hybridization
| sp3 | sp2 | sp |
|---|---|---|---|
Orbitals involved | One s and three p-orbitals of the central atom that are close in energy mix to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals for covalent bond formation. |
Difference between Inductive and Resonance Effect
Inductive Effect | Resonance/Mesomeric Effect |
|---|---|
The sigma (σ) or the covalent bond electrons are pulled or pushed so that the electron density shifts towards the most electronegative atom. | The pie (π) electrons are pulled and pushed through the p-orbitals along the sigma (covalent) bond framework. |
It is a permanent effect. | It is a permanent effect. |
Calculate molecular formula - C6H12O6
A compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen gave the following analytical data:
C = 40% and H = 6.67%
Calculate the molecular formula of the compound if its molecular mass is 180.
An Example of Conformation Dependent Reaction and Product Selectivity
Learning Objective: To learn through an example how a reaction outcome depends on the conformation of the reactant.
Skill Level - Intermediate
Prerequisites:
- Elimination Reaction (Chapter – Common Types of Reactions in Organic Chemistry)
Difference between Ionic, Covalent, Metallic, and Vander Waal Forces
Ionic Bond | Covalent Bond | Metallic Bond | Van der Waal Forces |
|---|---|---|---|
Ionic bonds form due to the complete transfer of electrons. | Covalent bonds form due to sharing of electrons. | Metallic Bond forms between a Metal (cation) and delocalized electrons. |
Heat Of Fusion and Melting Point- Crystalline vs Amorphous Solids
The crystalline solid is made up of the unit cells. Therefore, the properties of the unit cell turn out to be the properties of the crystalline solid. In a unit cell, the length of the edges and the angle between the edges are fixed. Therefore, the entire crystalline solid would exhibit fixed value for both these parameters.